Mapping is an analysis technique that typically employs software capable of rendering maps processing spatial data, and applying analytical methods to geographic datasets

Measuring is used to determine the locations of objects, and to the rules used to determine interpolated positions

Monitoring is a powerful management tool that can be used to improve the way governments and organizations achieve results

Modelling is a mathematical construct for representing geographic objects or surfaces as data

Managing includes customer support, operations, data management, and application development and support

GIS can help

1. Integrate data from multiple resources
2. Record how events change over space and time
3. Communicate results effectively
4. Model alternative geographic scenarios

Human-caused disruptions, such as habitat loss, pollution, invasive species introduction, and climate change, are all threats to wildlife health and biodiversity

GIS technology is an effective tool for managing, analyzing, and visualizing wildlife data to target areas where interventional management practices are needed and to monitor their effectiveness

• Habitat requirements & ranges
• Population patches & linkages
• Disease levels within populations
• Progress of management activities
• Historical & present wildlife densities

Remote Sensing It gathers the information about an object ( It may be terrain, land, topography, hill etc.) without coming contact (physically) the object and this information or data is then used in GIS

Transportation GPS helps to review the existing infrastructure, involves surveys of roads. GIS integrates, manage, analyse and visualize the wide range of data sets

Watershed analysis Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are a type of raster GIS layer and it is used in Watershed analysis to delineate watersheds and to derive features such as streams, stream network, catchment areas, basin etc

Pollution monitoring Different types of data can be integrated and correlated with GIS like chemical, physical, demographic

Resource management GIS in natural resource management is being used in analysing, organizing, managing and monitoring the natural hazards

Terrain mapping and analysis Terrain Analysis is the analysis and interpretation of topographic features such as slope, elevation, contour lines, upslope, downslope, etc. through GIS

Precision farming Harvesting more bushels per acre while spending less on fertilizer using precision farming and software

Disease control Combating the spread of pests by identifying critical intervention areas and efficiently targeting control interventions

Biomass estimation Measuring with laser accuracy biomass using scanner

Crop forecasting Predicting crop yields using NDVI, weather, soil moisture, soil types, and other parameters

Food demand Diagnosing the future food demand and planning how to fulfill the needs of a growing and increasingly affluent population

Crop productivity Calibrating crop productivity using indices like Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to estimate global crop productivity

Drought Minimizing the impact of drought by analyzing the spatial distribution of rainfall and real-time sensors like SMAP, SMOS, and synthetic aperture radar

Organic farming Managing various sources of data for organic farming permits including tillage history, field inputs, crop rotations, and pest management measures on a field-by-field basis

Water stress Balancing the ratio of local withdrawal (demand) over the available water (supply)

• Farm management
• Pest/disease tracking
• Crop monitoring
• Yield prediction
• Soil analysis

Line of sight Planning high-rise buildings so they don't obstruct the view of the mountains

Development planning Making citizens happy through smart development planning and understanding the bigger picture

Integration of GIS & BIM Operating a facility with BIM (building information modeling) because of its ability to analyze information and integrate data from different systems

Propagation of Noise in Urban Environments Modelling 3D data to answer how urban citizens are harmed by noise pollution, and how to mitigate it with noise barriers

Fleet Management Staying in route and solving scheduling problems with fleet management

Direct Marketing Revitalizing selling strategies by reaching out to customers directly with locational intelligence

Drive-Time Analysis Determining a trade area based on how long a customer must drive to get to the store – factoring in street speed limits, traffic volumes, and other impedance

Market Share Analysis Optimizing the locations of facilities so the allocated demand is maximized in the presence of competitors using tools like location-allocation in ArcGIS

Nearest Location Resolving the nearest gas station, restaurant, or coffee shop using GPS-based positioning and geocoded business data

Employee Travel Times Modelling travel times in urban networks for employee travel times

Data Analytics Analyzing location-based information to reveal the relationship between individuals, families, and communities, and the environment in which they live

Huff Model Calculating sales potential based on the Huff Model – an interaction model measuring the probabilities of consumers at each origin location patronizing a new store instead of other stores

Consumer Profiling Optimizing consumer profiling with location-based information on age, ethnicity, education, housing, and more

Buying Behavior Correlating unthinkable variables like weather and location with buying behaviors to find sales opportunities

Store Placement Guiding the placement of new stores by studying disposable income, population, or other variables to best serve the population

Climate Change Skeptics Maps make climate change findings easier for skeptics to understand and accept

Earth Interactions Modelling vegetation, atmospheric, rainfall, and ecosystems to study their interactions simultaneously

Desertification Understanding the underlying causes of desertification such as inappropriate agriculture practices, deforestation, and drought

Pollution Modelling Mapping air pollution sources and impacts on the environment and people

Vegetation Indices Using remote sensing vegetation indices like NDVI, CTVI, NRVI, and PVI to monitor vegetation change throughout time

Bird Risk & Richness Studying the effects of shrinking habitats on bird populations in the world

Crime Patterns Responding to crimes with a data-driven approach and delivering tailored responses through rapid deployment of personnel and resources

Incident Map Keeping the community safer by streaming visual mediums for arson, assault, burglary, homicide, prostitution, robbery, theft, and vandalism in a city

Emergency Calls and Dispatch An emergency call starts and ends at a location. GIS can manage both 911 calls and dispatching units to precise locations

Forensic GIS Applying science and geographic information for the investigating of a crime - such as using GPS-recorded information in vehicles to prove the location at the scene of a crime

GeoEvent Notification Avoiding high-crime areas with geofencing when delivering high-valued goods

Traffic Violations Collecting and mapping traffic incidents to assess if units should be spread out or concentrated in certain locations

Landslide Vulnerability Dodging landslides with relief maps and 3D analysis

Earthquake Prediction Obtaining earthquake signatures measuring subduction events with GRACE satellite and the geoid

Oil Spill Degreasing oil spills by identifying the current direction and rate of oil movement

Flood Forecasting Simulating with stream discharge hydrographs with variations of water over time

Search and Rescue Rescuing missing people by using small, highly maneuverable unmanned aerial vehicles (drones)

Habitat Suitability Factoring in all the variables to understand the habitat that animals select and avoid using linear regression

Land Facet Corridor Analysis Identifying linkages between wildlife and landscapes

Landscape Fragmentation Tools Classifying land cover types into forest fragmentation categories - patch, edge, perforated, and core

Migration Patterns Simulating the East African wildebeest migration patterns for the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem in East Africa

Species Biodiversity Gauging over time a decrease in biodiversity or an abundance of species (invasive or disturbance-increasing) using temporal GIS

Shannon's H Diversity Index Measuring mathematically species diversity and richness in a community

Species Modelling Running the Maximum Entropy Model (MAXENT) or QGIS Species Distribution Modelling (QSDM) plugin

Goods Flow Illustrating the flow of people or goods from point to point based on values with desire lines

Globalization Measuring the degree and extent of economic globalization using international trade data through time

Thematic Mapping Portraying economic data like unemployment and labor information in time-series thematic maps because maps speak to people

Economic Base Indicator Viewing economic indicators for business, industry, and demography based on radial, drive, and proximity

Trade Area Delineating the geographic area where a certain percentage of a store's customers live

Economic Costs of Pollution Assessing greener growth options and the costs of pollution in India by understanding the current state of environmental degradation

EIA Measuring anticipated effects on the environment of a proposed development project

Site Remediation Removing contamination from a plot of land detailing risk exposure and an overview with maps

Surface Water Flow Characterizing water flow to be identified as a high consequence for oil spill mitigation

Non-point Source Pollution Modelling non-point source pollution like soil erosion and sedimentation which are often controlled by variables such as land use/cover, topography, soils, and rainfall

Impoundment Index Tool for Wetlands Unearthing wetlands with Impoundment Index Tool to site potential wetland restoration projects, monitor wetland drainage, and model beaver habitat

• Forestry
• Ecology
• Mining
• Petroleum
• Water resources

Forest Inventory Prioritizing timber harvesting units by referring to age class and forest type to better measure timber acreage and average estimates

Forest Fires Plotting out forest fires with MODIS

Deforestation Gauging deforestation using land cover change in time

Reforestation Recharging forests through tree planting planning on a map

Forest Carbon Reserves Sequestering carbon through forest reserves and carbon observed in the atmosphere

Vegetation Potential Analyzing tree growth & distribution of vegetation

HealthMap Delivering real-time, global disease monitoring

Centre for Disease Control county-level maps of heart disease and stroke by race/ethnicity, gender, and age group, along with maps of social and economic factors and health services

John Snow spatial epidemiology -spatial distribution of diseases

Distance to Health Care Finding the closest doctor is a spatial problem

Cluster Analysis Identifying built environmental patterns using cluster analysis and GIS: relationships with walking, cycling, and body mass index

Ambulance Response Responding to emergencies faster with the quickest geographic route

Geomedicine Tracking patient's location history to determine if environmental and industrial hazards put them at risk for certain types of diseases

Sedimentation Rate Characterizing erosion and sedimentation with the Sediment Transport Index

Catchment Areas Delineating watershed catchment areas, where rainfall flows into a river

HEC-HMS Simulating the complete hydrologic processes of dendritic watershed systems with the HEC-HMS GIS-based methodology

Contour Lines Delineating contour lines because floods follow contour lines

ArcHydro Operating ArcHydro in ArcMap to delineate and characterize watersheds

Flow Accumulation Answering the question where did water come from by picking a point (a single cell in the DEM) and tracing backward showing all the contributing cells. (TauDEM)

Election Violence Reporting issues like outbreaks of violence, intimidation, or vote fraud during an election

Food Security Delivering assistance with expected outputs to those in need most

Humanitarian Assistance Plotting the spatial distribution of humanitarian assistance for planning purposes

Food Insecurity Drivers Pinpointing the underlying drivers of food insecurity such as farming practices, climate change, and changing demographics

Food Deserts Accessing grocery stores in low-income areas by incorporating information such as sidewalks, bicycle lanes, and public transit

Service Areas Measuring how far paramedics and firefighters can service an area

Landfill Site Selection Analyzing and eliminating sites within a buffer distance of sensitive populations (elderly, schools, hospitals, etc) and other overlay information like groundwater, transportation networks and surface water

Cellular Automata Stimulating urban growth expansion simulation

Land Use Policy Reproducing individual behavior with agent-based modeling to simulate their behaviors and outcomes having a direct impact on the surrounding landscpe

Tax Collection Increasing tax revenue by updating land and building property records, new construction records, and integrated departmental data into a single cadastral information system

• Land Use/Zoning
• Emergency Preparedness
• Population Forecast
• Transportation

Redistricting Encouraging citizen involvement through web-based applications for the redistricting process e.g. Redistricting QGIS Plugin

Voting Patterns Reviewing how electoral districts voted at the polls

Tax Evaders Catching tax evaders by recognizing areas of wealth such as swimming pools

Parcel Fabric Editing zoning, dissemination areas, and land designation boundaries

Gerrymandering Manipulating the geographic boundaries of an electoral constituency to favor one party

Dissolving Political Boundaries

Buffer Zone Search Buffering a search area for a query when house hunting

Market Analysis Expanding businesses through customer profiling, estimating sales potential, and finding available lots

Viewshed Prospecting viewsheds through observation points remotely when setting property prices

Wind Farm Noise Assessing the population and number of affected buildings affected by the noise of a wind farm

Real Estate Metrics Choosing the right house to buy or build based on the distance to schools, parks, transit stops, and other geospatial metrics

Housing with Mortgages Charting out occupied houses that have a mortgage or loan

Soil Types Modelling soil types through Jenny's model involving climate, organisms, topography, material, and time

Soil Moisture Estimating soil moisture from space with the SMAP and SMOS satellites

Water Retention Capacity Determining water retention capacity for a different type of soils and topographic characteristics

Lead Concentration in Soils Collecting soil samples and mapping the lead geochemical landscape

Salinity Inspecting salinity with electromagnetic surveys to find the electrical conductivity in soils and interpolating the results to find unknowns

Normalized Difference Soil Index (NDSI) Gauging soil water content from space using shortwave infrared, near infrared wavelength, and NDSI

Radio-Wave Propagation Estimating the propagation of radio waves for a network with complex reflections and diffraction and line-of-sight

Locating Cell Towers Locating cell tower placements in urban areas using 3D building structures

Network Management Managing a network of telecommunication cables and towers in a network data set

Antenna Height Optimization Optimizing antenna height using GIS 3D modeling

Cellular Coverage Analysis Maximizing cellular coverage using tower height by using interference analysis including viewshed and line-of-sight

Fibre Optic Cable Planning fiber optic cable infrastructure through network views showing capacity, equipment, and customer demographics

Today's challenges require geographic approach

• Climate Change
• Urban Growth
• Water Quality & Availability
• International & National Security
• Energy
• Epidemiology/disease Tracking
• Natural Hazards: Seismicity, Weather Events

Queries about this Session, please send them to: jmwaura@jkuat.ac.ke

*References*

• Geographic Information System Basics, 2012 J.E.Campbell & M. Shin
• Fundamentals of GIS, 2017 Girmay Kindaya
• GIS Applications for Water, Wastewater, and Stormwater Systems, 2005 U.M. Shamsi
• Analytical and Computer Cartography, 2nd ed. Keith C. Claike
• Geographic Information Systems: The Microcomputer and Modern Cartography, 1st ed. Fraser Taylor